Attaining Knowledge despite Bias and Selection Essays

Attaining Knowledge despite Bias and Selection Essays Attaining Knowledge despite Bias and Selection Essay Attaining Knowledge despite Bias and Selection Essay Name: Course: Lecturer: Date: Attaining Knowledge despite Bias and Selection Knowledge refers to the information that a person has, which is acquired through learning, perception or experience. People usually gain knowledge through studying. Some people may argue that this is biased learning, since they do not have a choice concerning what they are learning. They enter into an education system, which has already been designed and selected for them. They therefore, have no choice but to study what they are taught. Knowledge goes through a process of selection, whereby some of the elements, which do not succeed the various tests that are applied to them, are eliminated, and those which succeed are retained (Geisler, 169). Human beings naturally choose what they want to learn. The idea that they have a choice in the matter, gives them the will they need to study. Bias means preference or favor towards a particular thing. Selection means carefully choosing someone or something that seems most suitable. Bias and selection have influenced the information that peop le acquire. I will argue that it is possible to acquire knowledge despite bias and selection by examining history and art. My knowledge claim in history is that it is possible to attain knowledge despite bias and selection. Personally, I think that history is the main political events and structural changes that are especially linked to human affairs. History continues to permeate the society because human beings have the ability to record past events. Bias and selection play a crucial role in this case, since in most cases, people have to depend on memory to record the events. History is biased since not all the events that occurred at a particular time are recorded. Whoever records the events will choose, which accounts he or she considers important to record, and will omit other accounts that seem insignificant. Some of the examples of history include the French Revolution, the shooting of John F. Kennedy, World War I and II, the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the recent account of 9/11. All the events have several things in common. They all happened in the past, they have had a significant impact on ma ny people, and in our country, they have all been documented, they all have different interpretations, they all affected significant people, and they are all traced to a single event. In addition, these events had a significant impact, and they carried heavy consequences, thus they were documented. Art is one of the most difficult terms to define because it has a broad meaning. It has various forms such as visual forms, music and literature. It means different things to different communities. Even people within the same community may differ concerning the true definition of art. The study of art that was created many years ago has revealed certain aspects of the society during the time. It has enabled people to know the culture, traditions, beliefs and practices of the people that lived in a particular time. This is represented in various art forms. A person can attain a lot of knowledge by observing different pieces of art from different periods in history. For instance, there is a clear difference between medieval, renaissance and classical art. By observing the art made by the medieval artists, one learns that religion was more prevalent in the society. The artists were more reserved in the sense that the figures in the paintings were fully clothed. Artists in the renaissanc e period were different, in that they had more freedom. The figures in the paintings were either nude or clothed. They explored the secular as well as the religious worlds. The artists were more interested in nature than in religion. Some of the famous artists during the time included Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo My counterclaim is that the knowledge gained from art and history is not accurate and therefore it cannot be trusted. Historians usually record the historical events using information from different sources. This information can sometimes be misleading in the sense that different authors can have conflicting information. They also choose to record the information that seems most relevant to them. For instance, most history books record the victory of kings and presidents in war. They do not mention all the people who were involved in the war. One cannot trust the information from different art sources. This is especially the case in visual forms of art and literature, where the artists usually use their imagination liberally to create different forms of art. In some cases, it is not possible to separate the reality from the fiction. The interpretation of history and art depends on a person’s interpretation. This can be affected by the person’s perception, emotions, reas oning or language. History that is learnt through books will depend on the perception of the writer. It is possible for two people to be present when one event is happening, but they will record different accounts of the events later. They have different perceptions concerning the event, and they will therefore record what they consider relevant and important. In the same way, a piece of art will depend on the artist’s perception when creating the art. Artists do not just paint or do other forms of artwork just because someone has asked them to do so. They will instead choose to specialize on the type of art that they are most comfortable with, and they will perfect it. Some people write fictional works of art such as novels. These novels depend entirely on the perception of the writer. The main argument concerning historical events is that they tend to have many different interpretations. People tend to trust the documented accounts since they were not present when these particular events were happening. Emotion can be a problem when interpreting history. People are controlled by their emotions despite the evidence presented. This is especially the case when the subject is controversial or sensitive. Emotions are important in the interpretation of art and history. People have different emotions when they see acquire knowledge concerning an area that affects them personally. For instance, Jews are more emotional than others are when they remember the holocaust. African Americans react strongly when they read about slavery. Time also determines how people react. For instance, many historical events, especially those that happened many years ago do not affect me the same way as recent historical events. This is mainly because I have had the chance to experience the recent historical events. For instance, the 9/11 event affected me deeply when it happened more than the Pearl Harbor. Though both events were tragic and significant, I related more to the 9/11 event more than the Pearl Harbo r. Time is therefore, an important determinant when interpreting history, as it makes the events more realistic and significant to me. Some people interpret history and art based on reason. They want to understand the reason why things happened the way they did. They want to understand why an artist chose to do his or her work in a certain manner. They will therefore develop theories and arguments that will help them understand more. This has led many to interpret various art forms based on the intention of the artists. This can sometimes be misleading since in some cases-such as when the artists are dead-it is not possible to know what the artists’ intentions were. Language affects our thinking process, in the sense that our thoughts are limited by our language. A person cannot think in a language that he or she does not understand. Language is an important part of history, as it is used to document historical records. People think in their native language, and this may present a problem in interpretation. In some cases, historical books are written in English, and the full meaning of the work is lost if translated to another language. This is because some English words do not have an equal meaning in other languages. Some languages do not have the right terms or phrases to use to describe a particular art form. Despite the shortcomings of language, it is essential to understand that something does not stop existing just because it does not have a name in a specific language. Meaning is a fundamental concept of knowledge. I do not think that a person can get any knowledge if he or she does not understand the meaning of something. The meaning of a piece of art is more subjective, since it depends on the viewers’ perception. Meaning in art, is the main determinant of the reaction and the response to art. A person will respond based on what a particular piece of art means to them. We are able to know of the historical events that happened because they have been documented in historical texts by many different authors. Although the records are biased, they enable us to attain knowledge. This is enabled by the fact that people are able to read different accounts that happened from different authors. They are thus able to note some of the similarities in the texts. Artists create their works through imagination and reality (Worth). Their environment and their imagination are their main inspiration. This means that viewers of different forms of art have to be careful when observing different pieces of art. They have to separate imagination from reality. Over the years, many people have acquired knowledge from looking at different pieces of art. The different art forms have enabled them to know different things concerning the era the piece of art was created. It is therefore possible to attain knowledge using history and art despite bias and selection.

Free Essays on Ode On A Grecian Urn And Its Historical Symbolism

â€Å"Ode on a Grecian Urn† and Its Historical Symbolism" In the poem â€Å"Ode on a Grecian Urn† the urn is symbolic of history itself. True, every line of the poem paints a picture of a concrete item, but the pictures themselves are historical, and tell the stories of gods and deities, men and maidens, struggles and war, even love and death. Therefore, the urn itself is both physically and symbolically a representation of history. The urn is a quiet item, much like history. It sits in its place until moved, or in the case of history, told. The urn, sitting silently, is also easily overlooked and forgotten, much like a foster child, and just like history which may be remembered for a little while, eventually fades into the background, â€Å"Thou foster-child of silence and slow time.† (2) Keats even directly refers to the urn as a historian, â€Å"Sylvan historian, who canst thus express; /A flowery tale more sweetly than our rhyme.† (3-4) further emphasizing my claim. Melodies heard by the ear are sweet, but those heard by the heart are even sweeter. With history it is the same. We see history happening every day, but it’s the untold stories, the situations that change our lives that mean the most to us. This is emphasized in the lines, Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard Are sweeter; therefore, ye soft pipes, play on; Not to the sensual ear, but more endeared, Pipe to the spirit ditties of no tone: (11-14) One of the tales told most often in history is the story of love. Keats dedicates several lines of the poem to love. He also touches on the unchanging tides of history, â€Å"Fair youth, beneath the trees, though canst not leave,† (15) as well as death and the loss of love, â€Å"yet, do not grieve; /She cannot fade, though thou has not thy bliss† (18-19) At this point, Keats takes on a more morbid tone, further emphasizing death and yet proclaiming immortality. Forever panting, and forever young... Free Essays on Ode On A Grecian Urn And Its Historical Symbolism Free Essays on Ode On A Grecian Urn And Its Historical Symbolism â€Å"Ode on a Grecian Urn† and Its Historical Symbolism" In the poem â€Å"Ode on a Grecian Urn† the urn is symbolic of history itself. True, every line of the poem paints a picture of a concrete item, but the pictures themselves are historical, and tell the stories of gods and deities, men and maidens, struggles and war, even love and death. Therefore, the urn itself is both physically and symbolically a representation of history. The urn is a quiet item, much like history. It sits in its place until moved, or in the case of history, told. The urn, sitting silently, is also easily overlooked and forgotten, much like a foster child, and just like history which may be remembered for a little while, eventually fades into the background, â€Å"Thou foster-child of silence and slow time.† (2) Keats even directly refers to the urn as a historian, â€Å"Sylvan historian, who canst thus express; /A flowery tale more sweetly than our rhyme.† (3-4) further emphasizing my claim. Melodies heard by the ear are sweet, but those heard by the heart are even sweeter. With history it is the same. We see history happening every day, but it’s the untold stories, the situations that change our lives that mean the most to us. This is emphasized in the lines, Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard Are sweeter; therefore, ye soft pipes, play on; Not to the sensual ear, but more endeared, Pipe to the spirit ditties of no tone: (11-14) One of the tales told most often in history is the story of love. Keats dedicates several lines of the poem to love. He also touches on the unchanging tides of history, â€Å"Fair youth, beneath the trees, though canst not leave,† (15) as well as death and the loss of love, â€Å"yet, do not grieve; /She cannot fade, though thou has not thy bliss† (18-19) At this point, Keats takes on a more morbid tone, further emphasizing death and yet proclaiming immortality. Forever panting, and forever young...

American history between 1607 and 1800 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

American history between 1607 and 1800 - Essay Example n, this brief analysis will consider the effect that the Seven Years War and the subsequent revenue acts of the mid to late 1760s had on congealing an anti-Imperial tone within the American populace; a tone that necessarily and ultimately gave way to feelings of outright rage and hatred for the ruling British and the extent to which the American colonies saw themselves as extensions of this power. By way of such an analysis, it is the hope of this author that the reader/researcher can come to a more clear and definitive understanding of why the colonial forces believed they could challenge the British and what preliminary aspects of interaction helped to bolster this type of courage. The Seven Years War, or alternatively the French – Indian War as it was referred to in the colonies, was a period of conflict that actually spanned 8 years and affected almost all of the European powers, the North American colonies, as well as the Caribbean, India, the Philippines, and parts of Africa. As such, it paved the way for the introduction of a very high level of debt within the European system as a function of the fact that the war was so extraordinarily expensive and at that time budgets had to be balanced prior to moving on. As such, it necessitated the institution of an array of taxation on the colonies as well as the home nations involved. Although it may be seen as convenient by many American historians to view the colonies as shouldering an unreasonable percentage of the debt from the Seven Years War, this is entirely not the case.1 Rather, all of Britain’s possessions had taxes levied against them as it was the crown’s understanding that all com ponent parts of the Empire must share in the debt that the Empire had accrued by means of ensuring its continued existence. As a function of this, all of the British territories, holdings, and Imperial possessions had taxes, duties, and other revenue mechanisms affixed to rapidly seek to pay down the debt through

Personal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Personal - Essay Example When I reflect at the most touching sights I have had in my life, one that particularly comes to my mind is the first time I saw a cow feeding the calf her milk. In my childhood, I was very fond of pets. Whenever I happened to make it to my town, I spent hours playing with the hens and the ducks. My uncle had kept that cow and the calf in the town. I noticed that the cow fed upon the grass while the calf did not. When I asked my uncle the reason, he said it was so because the cow had teeth while the calf did not. He drew the calf’s mouth open to show me that the calf instead had a gum-plate without teeth in the mouth’s top where the cow had teeth. Then I saw the cow feeding the calf. Although I was quite touched then, but was too little and probably, uneducated also to realize what had made the cow feed the calf. The cow’s responsibility towards the calf was an outcome of the relation between the two. I had several questions in my mind; Who taught the cow to feed the calf and the calf to suck the milk from the cow’s breast? Who was careful enough to put the milk in the cow’s breast for the calf since it didn’t have teeth of its own to chew the grass? Following the cosmological arguments that every phenomenon has a cause for its occurrence, I realized that there is somebody who put milk in the cow’s breast so that the calf would not stay unfed. There is somebody who made the cow responsible enough to share her body with the calf. There is somebody who put love between the two. And there is somebody who nurtured the cow to the level that she had fully developed teeth while the calf had not. And that somebody is God. Concluding, my critical analysis of the relation between the cow and the calf and all aspects of it was fundamentally an outcome of the cosmological arguments that made part of my studies in the high school. I found answers to my questions using my critical analysis and

New discoveries in physiology in last 5 years Research Paper

New discoveries in physiology in last 5 years - Research Paper Example Recent studies are exploring ribosome biogenesis’ role in inflammatory pathologies that include cancer (Blalock et al., 2014) and how dysregulated rRNA synthesis could contribute to or be a product of malignant cellular changes (Nguyen et al., 2015). Studying ribosome biogenesis and its dynamics and effects on malignant tumors can improve the understanding of cancer cell proliferation and may lead to more precise treatments/therapies for cancer (Blalock et al., 2014; Nguyen et al., 2015; Penzo et al., 2015). Ribosome biogenesis involves multiple steps, including rRNA transcription, development of pre-rRNA transcripts towards maturity, gathering of preribosomes, and RNA processing into mature ribosomes (Nguyen et al., 2015). Ribosomal DNA (rDNA) goes through the transcribing of the RNA polymerase I (Pol I) into a 47 S rRNA precursor, which later becomes processed and turns into 18 S, 5.8S, and 28 S mature rRNAs (Nguyen et al., 2015). rDNA becomes multicopy genes in arrays, wherein the number of active genes in any specific time has epigenetic regulations (Nguyen et al., 2015). Furthermore, various cellular signaling pathways connected to cell growth impact the activity of proteins that are in charge of rRNA transcription and which can be co-opted through the oncogenic processes (Nguyen et al., 2015). The following studies provide novel discoveries about the genetic expressions of different kinds of cancers. Nguyen et al. (2015) studied the epigenetic and the post-transcriptional mechanisms that may give some explanation on how dysregulated rRNA synthesis could influence or be a product of malignant transformation. They learned from their studies that Akt has a function in pre-rRNA synthesis. Their findings and other research showed that the pro-cell survival PI3K/Akt axes are similarly connected to and may cause

Importance Of Marketing In Todays World Marketing Essay

Importance Of Marketing In Todays World Marketing Essay Introduction: According to the American Marketing Association marketing is defined as activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large'(American Marketing Assocation, 2007). Drucker states the aim of marketing is to make selling superfluous (American Marketing Association, 2007). By keeping the above definitions in view we can say that to identify customers needs and act accordingly to satisfy their needs is called marketing. The aim of this report is to develop an understanding of marketing concepts, use and apply it to Marks Spencer (MS) in order to understand the role and significance of marketing. Importance of Marketing in todays World: Due to Economic downturn marketing has gained importance in past few years in order to gain the attention of the consumers.In 21st century marketing has become one of the key strategies used by organisations world wide. Companies can not use one simple marketing strategy which meets the need of both markets and consumers because they are so versatile to be dealt collectively this is because of continues change in modern society. Cultural changes and advancements in technology divided a market into so many segments.In order for MS to capture large market share it has to set up successful market strategies and make the most of technology. MS Marketing Process: In the past and the present MS proved to be successful to meet its consumers continuously changing needs by effectively implementing marketing processes. Following are the four stages which helped MS to understand fulfil its customers requirements. Situational Analysis: In this stage of marketing process companies like MS keep both internal and external environment in view to carry out the market place analysis and try to spot gaps in the market. In addition to identifying the customer needs, must understand its own capabilities and the environment in which it is operating (NetMBA, 2007). This stage is very vital as the rival companies such as Tesco and Waitrose are always coming up with new ideas and new products etc so that they can stay ahead in the competition. In SWOT analysis this rapidly changing marketing environment comes under the heading of threat. Marketing Strategy: By keeping the core purpose of this report in view, the major change in approach which has been seen in the companies is the shift from mass marketing approach to target marketing. In target marketing approach companies try to identify trends in the segmented market as its the one of the most important factor in STP. Segmentation There are two main types of segmentation i.e. geographic and demographic segmentation. The later one is used by MS to target market for its products and it recognizes its consumers by social class , income and age which is very crucial for success in todays world e.g. clothing line is divided into three segments i.e. premium price, medium priced, and low price. MS customer segmentation is also divided in following 4 groups (Carbon commentary, 2007): Green zealots: people who will actively seek out the most ethically and environmentally responsible products. Climate change is particularly important issue to these people. Those interested and concerned, but often uncertain how to shop to achieve their ethical objectives. Aware of the problem, not certain that their actions can have much effect or that they need to shop differently. Struggling, dont give priority to issues. Targeting: DAMP (distinct, accessible, measurable and profitable) process is used by MS to understand, identify and target the required segments of the market. According to the marketing director , Steven Sharp , although we sell to everybody big, small, young, black, white our absolute target market is a bit older and is comfortable with traditional media (Telegraph, 2006). It means that MS targets, offers (products and services) and sells to a large market but mainly to a mature age group. Positioning: The From this it can be seen that MS targets a very large audience, but the key here is to target the mature age group way that an audience of consumers or buyers perceive a product or service (Baines, P. Fill, C. Page, K., 2008, pg.251). This definition of positioning means that perception has a great deal of importance in terms of both physical attributes and the deliverance of a product. MSs market research information provides a key analytical tool in identifying a consumers preference. MS and the Consumer Society: A consumer society is a culture in which consumption of material goods is encouraged, and the economic health of the society is dependent on the spending of the population (Xaxx, 2010). Basically in consumer society companies make the consumers feel that they need specific product in their life so here marketing plays an important role in terms of attracting consumers to buy a specific product.MS should be very careful in terms of fulfilling consumers expectations regarding price, convenience and experience as a whole because consumers behaviour is seen to be rapidly changing. MS is advertising its products quite cleverly to its target market and persuading consumers as MS itself is a symbol of quality so whatever they sell is of high quality which has a psychological effect on the target market, persuading them to buy particular products/services they offer. Marketing is undoubtfully fashionable (Baudrillard, 1988, p.30) it means marketing is a bridge of communication in terms of both introducing products for sale in the market and letting people know how eco friendly they are, which is practiced by MS. MS is also part of fashion industry of which marketing environment is rapidly changing, by the help of PESTLE analyses we can look into that and the importance for MS to adapt these changes. PESTLE Analysis: Political, Economical, Social, Technological, Legal and Environment analysis are used to explore external environment. Political: Political factors like government policies, taxation, subsidies and grants can effect MS operations e.g. if government increases taxes then, MS have to cut their costs, which can include MS reducing expenditure on marketing. Economic: Economic factors include inflation, taxation, interest and consumer buying power etc basically it includes and affects everyone in the economy. It affects MS marketing strategy and their operation in the market. Consumer buying power means MS shift focus on their pricing strategy carefully, to attract consumers and hence boost sales. Sociological: Consumer buying behaviour and demographic are the factors involved in sociological analyses. Consumer behaviour is the main aspect of marketing, as it focuses to understand consumers preferences, habits and attitudes and then act accordingly in order to attract customers. MS being quality conscious not only try to keep up with their quality standard but also tries to improve it in their stores which they also show in their advertisements. This will have good psychological impact on consumers mind as well as they will always relate MS to quality. Technological: Advancement in technology eased out marketing for companies in 21st century. Internet proved to be one of the biggest revolutions in the field of marketing as it made communication and transfer of information effortless. Internet played a vital role in communication and transfer of information worldwide. MS is marketing its brands and products through its website which is easily accessible by the consumers basically they are one click away from buying required products/services. Legal: MS has to follow certain legalities while trading, dealing with employees and competitors and make sure that all the action they perform are legitimate in the eyes of law. Environmental: The last but not the least factor of PESTLE analyses is environment. One of the reasons behind MS success story is that they have a good organisational culture and this factor also makes a distinction from its rival firms. Marketing Mix Decision at MS: The term marketing mix became popularized after Neil H. Borden published his 1964 article, The Concept of the Marketing Mix Product: A product is defined as anything that is capable of satisfying customer needs (Baines, P. Fill, C. Page, K., 2008, pg. 15). There are three levels of product i.e. core, actual, augment. Core level proves to be the most beneficial and meaningful part of the product. Its the final product being served to the customers for example, MS jackets made from wool being served to customers as clothing to keep the warm. Whereas, the method by which a product is delivered to MS customers comes under the heading of actual product and augmented product is concerned with how the customer receives the product and also considers after-sales services. Women show their keen interest in MS thats why MS makes the most of the profit from women wear however MS still tries to enter new market by conducting market research and bringing out innovative products. Food store is a success story of MS capturing new market. Price Price is what company charges for a product to the customers. In 4ps of marketing mix for a company price is the only factor of source of income. On the other hand product, place and promotion are the cost for the company. While charging for products and services MS keeps the current market value in view. More cost based than most is the type of policy used by MS for pricing (Daily Mail, 2009) which differentiate it from its rival companies. Place Customers can purchase product from the available place. MS has over  600 stores located throughout the UK, ranging from large out-of-town and flagship stores of over 100,000 sq ft, to Simply Food stores of around 7,000 sq ft. Our largest store is located at Marble Arch on Londons Oxford Street and  has around 170,000 sq ft of selling space'(Marks Spencer, 2011). MS is very flexible in terms meeting the demands of its customers and is very carefull and successful till date.

The Quest for the Good :: Essays Papers

The Quest for the Good Is the Good something concrete to be obtained, or is it a way of life unique to individuals? This question is asked most assuredly in a biased manner, directing us along a path to the answer. It raises many logical questions of how, exactly, the Good is framed, and what it means to live a good life. To do this, an understanding must be found of what exactly the Good is. The questions of how the Good is structured and what the Good is are intricately tied together, and as such both shall be explored. The most important step in terms of the Good is the quest, as shall be found, because it is only by actively seeking the Good that one can find any understanding of it. As such, the quest for the Good shall be explored in The Republic by Plato, Confessions by Saint Augustine, and Death Comes for the Archbishop by Willa Cather. These works will help give a full understanding of what the quest for the Good is, and how it is difficult to define because it is so multiplicitous. Also, an outside framework will be explored, to be able to look at a world conception that includes many o f the themes explored by the authors, and the opposites which tend to be left out. Overall we will find the Good and the quest. To understand the breadth of the answer, the meanings of the question must be understood. The important questions are: can the Good be concrete? Can the Good be obtained? Is the Good a way of life? How is it unique? A concrete Good would be an immutable, unchanging Good. This would be a Good that exists in an abstract realm, something of a Platonic Form of the Good. If there were a less abstract Good, one more easily attained, we would all know it explicitly. Therefore, if there is an exact idea of what the Good is, it is hard enough to find that philosophers exist. The corollary to this question is, can the Good not be concrete? In other words, can the Good change or evolve, or is there always the same Good, forever? St. Augustine saw the Good as God, and saw God as non-physical and unchanging (Augustine, 4, ii(2)). As such, the Christian lifestyle, the Good life, would be a single path, the same throughout the ages.